Changes

|First Name=IssacIsaac

|DOB Year=16421643|DOB Month=DecemberJanuary|DOB Day=254

|DOD Year=17261727

|SummaryBrief=Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) was a an English mathematician, astronomer, and physicist/natural philosopher who lived and worked in England in is widely recognized as one of the 17th and 18th century. most influential scientists of all time|Summary=Newton’s most notable contributions were made to the fields of physics, mathematics, and scientific method, which were so groundbreaking that he is currently considered to be one of the most important physicists in modern Western history.[[CiteRef::Janiak (2016)]] Philosophers of science credit Newton’s revolutionary theory of gravity and his experimental approach to conducting natural philosophy as outlined in his major work, The Principia, (''Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica'' (''Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy'' or simply the [[Newton (1687)|''Principia'']]) , whose principles became central to be the foundation for the dominant Newtonian mosaic which influenced much of late 18th and 19th century science.[[CiteRef::Janiak (2016)]] Some consider The the ''Principia '' to be the work that initially created physics as its own scientific field separate from the umbrella of metaphysics and philosophy.[[CiteRef::Janiak (2016)]]|Historical Context=Although Newton’s curriculum When Isaac Newton began his studies at Cambridge University's prestigious Trinity College in 1661, more than a century had passed since Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) had proposed a '''heliocentric cosmology''' in 1543. It had been fifty years since Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) published his observations with the telescope in 1610, which uncovered dramatic evidence for the Copernican system. At about the University same time, Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) published his laws of Cambridge in planetary motion, indicating that the planets revolved around the sun on elliptical paths, replacing the 1660’s would have consisted circular motion and complex epicycles of AristotelianCopernicus and Claudius Ptolemy (c. 100-170).[[CiteRef::Westfall (1980)|pp. 1-scholastic science7]] According to Westfall, Newton is known "by 1661 the debate on the heliocentric universe had been settled; those who mattered had surrendered to have distanced himself from classical metaphysics and instead studied the works irresistible elegance of Réné DescartesKepler's unencumbered ellipses, who’s work conceived supported by the Cartesian mosaic striking testimony of science that dominated much of 17th century European natural philosophythe telescope, whatever the ambiguities might be. For Newton, the heliocentric universe was never a matter in question".[[CiteRef::Janiak Westfall (20161980)|ppp. 13,556]] A planetary Earth that rotated on its axis and revolved around the sun was incompatible with the accepted physics of [[Aristotle]](384-322 BCE). The community of the time was engaged with the question of how it could be that the Earth itself was in motion through space, and with the question of how one could hope to gain reliable knowledge in the face of the failure of Aristotelian scholastic knowledge accepted for centuries.

Both Newton’s education at Cambridge was classical, focusing on Aristotelian rhetoric, logic, ethics, and physics and philosophy were heavily influenced . Bound to '''Aristotelian scholasticism''' by Descartes’ ideasstatutory rules,the curriculum had changed little in decades.[[CiteRef::Christianson (1984)|p. 33]][[CiteRef::Westfall (1980)|pp. Although he disagreed with 81-90]][[CiteRef::Smith (2009)]] Like many of the theories about more ambitious students, Newton distanced himself from classical metaphysics and instead studied the works of the French natural world adopted in the Cartesian mosaicphilosopher [[René Descartes]](1596-1650) on his own. By 1664, it was clear that Newton viewed is known to have read the Cartesian mosaic as 1656 Latin edition of Descartes' ''Opera Philosophica'', a step forward from the preceding Aristotelianone volume compilation of Descartes' major works.[[CiteRef::Smith (2009)]] Newton is known to have been profoundly influenced by Descartes views of space, matter, and God, and by commentaries on Descartes by Henry More (1614-scholastic one1687).[[CiteRef::Janiak (2016)|p. 55]] When structuring Descartes had died just over a decade earlier, and his view of works had first been published within the preceding thirty years. They were gaining in popularity and by about 1680 would become the natural world, Descartes based his model on a Copernican view [[Theory Acceptance|accepted]] centerpiece of the universeCambridge curriculum, as opposed to the classical geocentric understanding. Geocentrism was an important axiom to theories of motion developed under Aristotelian-scholasticismthey also would in Paris by 1700.[[CiteRef::Disalle Barseghyan (20042015)|p. 37190]] With the Earth at the centre of the universe When Newton published his magnum opus, all motion could be explained causally according to whether the moving object in question existed ''Principia'' in the terrestrial or celestial realm1687, which in that mosaic were thought he was challenging a Cartesian orthodoxy. The full title of Newton's work suggests he intended it to be fundamentally differentin dialog with Descartes' ''Principia Philosophiae'' (''Principles of Philosophy'') published in 1644.[[CiteRef::Bodnar Janiak (2016)]]

Once Descartes had adopted Copernican heliocentrism, was the causal theory most prominent member of motion as understood by Aristotelian-scholastic natural philosophers had to be replaced along with its cosmological model. [Cambridge 1. P. 48.] Cartesian mechanics was developed around a radical comprehension community of '''corpuscularist''' thinkers, who maintained that visible objects were made of unobservably tiny particles, whose relations and arrangement were responsible for the source properties of motion was the same for all visible bodies in the universe. This idea acted as a pillar upon which a new, In this '''mechanical natural philosophy ''', particles influenced one another only by direct physical contact, which was constructed. According to this philosophy, the source cause of all motion , and ultimately all change.[[CiteRef::Disalle (2004)]] One of material objects the attractions of these ideas is directthat, unlike Aristotle's, they allowed for a movable planetary Earth, physical contact with other material objectsand celestial motions weren't different in kind from terrestrial motions. The mechanical philosophy was adopted by LeibnizThey explained gravity, in qualitative terms, Huygensas due to a swirling vortex of particles around the Earth, and many other prominent scientists who worked alongside Newtonwhich pushed things towards its centre. In accord with Copernican heliocentrism, indicating Descartes posited that much of later 17th century science was deeply rooted a larger vortex surrounded the sun, with the smaller planetary vorticies caught in Cartesian philosophya larger solar vortex.[[CiteRef::Garber (1992)]][[CiteRef::Disalle (2004)]]In Newton's time, major champions of the mechanical natural philosophy included Christiaan Huygens (1629-1695) and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716), who was to become a major rival of Newton's.

Although For Descartes included many revolutionary theories , the ultimate justification of knowledge claims lie with human reason and the natural world in his mosaic, he still largely absence of doubt. He relied on classical methods of theorizing and conjectured hypotheses in order to construct scientific propositions.[[CiteRef::Janiak (2016)]] Despite the fact that in Such a '''rationalist''' approach to knowledge was also championed by Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677), Nicolas Malebranche (1638-1715), and Leibniz.[[CiteRef::Lennon and Dea (2014)]] But, by the early 17th century , experimental researchers like Galileo and Robert Boyle (1627-1691) had already begun to test proposed theories, Descartes still chose elaborate and practice a very different approach to knowledge based on experimentation and extensive use logical deductions in of mathematics. Following the '''inductive methodology''' advocated by [[Francis Bacon]](1561-1626), they maintained that theoretical principles emerged from experimental data by a process of inductive generalization. However, there were also dissenters like Newton's contemporary Christiaan Huygens, who believed that most experimental work involved formulating hypotheses about unobservable entities, which were tested by their observable consequences. This was an attempt to prove empirical truths, instead early form of attempting any empirical testing or mathematical techniques'''hypothetico-deductivism'''.|Major Contributions==== Newton on Mathematics and Natural Philosophy ===Newton's two most important works of natural philosophy were the ''Principia'', published in 1687 [[CiteRef::Janiak Newton (20161687)]] Although many , which dealt with his theories of Newton’s ideas were either adopted directlymotion and universal gravitation, and ''Opticks: or adapted from Descartes views , A Treatise of the natural worldReflexions, Refractions, Inflexions, the method and Colours of hypotheses is one that Light'' [[CiteRef::Newton rejected outright, (1704)]] which was published in 1704 and instead sought different methods for arriving at dealt with his conclusionstheories of light and color. [[CiteRef::Westfall (1999)]] Newton made mathematics much more central to the conduct of natural philosophy than Descartes, by producing a general mathematical theory of the motion of bodies.[[CiteRef::Janiak (2016)]]|Major Contributions=He posited three mathematical '''laws of motion''', together with a '''law of universal gravitation'''. Changes in the state of motion of objects were caused by '''Newton on Calculusforces'''acting on them. Quantities of force and amounts of matter were measurable. The laws specified the mathematical relationship between the acceleration experienced by an object, the quantity of matter composing it, and the magnitude of the forces acting on it. [[CiteRef::Smith (2009)]]

Whereas Descartes did not rely on mathematical reasoning for his deductions of scientific propositionsIn contrast with the Cartesian mechanical philosophy, Newton believed that mathematics was an imperative part of conducting natural philosophy.[[CiteRef::Janiak (2016)]] In in Newton’s physics, material objects were not required to be in direct contact with each other in order for motion to occur. Instead, objects react to influence each other via 's motion. Forces could act at a forcedistance. To explain both falling bodies on Earth and the motions of the moon and planets, which Newton envisioned posited a '''gravitational force''' that acted as a quantifiable property contained in all material objects, the amount inverse square of which is directly proportional to the quantity of matter contained in the objectdistance between objects. Quantities of force and matter were thus introduced He claimed to the mosaic as ontological entities that were measurable. By applying Newton’s three have derived this relationship from Kepler's observational laws of planetary motion that outlined . The works of Ptolemy, Copernicus, and Kepler used the mathematical relations between force and matter, language of geometry in their descriptive accounts of celestial motions. In the motion of all material objects could be explained and predicted mathematically''Principia'' Newton likewise presented his arguments geometrically. Unlike his predecessors, thereby giving mathematics a new central role Newton sought to do more than simply describe celestial motions. He sought to explain them in the study terms of natural philosophygravitational forces acting between bodies. In The Principiaorder to do this, Newton made extensive use invented a new branch of mathematics in his argument for , '''integral and differential calculus'''. Calculus deals with mathematical quantities that are continuously changing, such as the unified theory magnitude and direction of gravitygravitational forces acting on an orbiting body.[Newtons principia[CiteRef::Friedman (2002)]] The mathematical language used in [[CiteRef::Smith (2009)]] Newton developed the Principia basic concept of calculus during 1665-6, while Cambridge University was geometryclosed due to a plague, which was also but didn't publish it until the basis for many first decade of the major models for celestial mechanics that were studied at the time, including the works of Ptolemy, Copernicus eighteenth century. He is thus co-credited with inventing calculus with his contemporary and Keplerrival Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716).[[CiteRef::Cohen and Smith (2009Eds.) (2002)|pp. 10-20]]

Even though === Newton published his key work in the language of geometry, as a mathematician he is primarily role in inventing integral and differential calculus. He is co-credited independently for the calculus alongside his contemporary and rival natural philosopher, Leibniz.[[CiteRef::Cohen and Smith (Eds.) (2002)|pp. 13-14]] The calculus is a mathematical technique that is capable of solving problems in physics involving acceleration, which is a quantity that lay at the heart of Newton’s theory of motion.[[CiteRef::Friedman (2002)]] It was only in the 18th century that mathematicians Jacob Hermann and Leonhard Euler expressed Newton’s laws of motion using calculus.[[CiteRef::Smith (2009)|p. 29]] In preceding years, calculus became indispensable tool for scientists in the Newtonian mosaic to solve problems in physics, and to predict the behaviour of material objects with an unprecedented degree of accuracy.[[CiteRef::Smith (2009)]] Although geometry is still taught in schools today, calculus is the primary mathematical technique learned and used in physics and engineering classrooms. on Methodology ===

Prior to the publication of The ''Principia'', the philosophy of motion and change in the universe was largely a theoretical and non-mathematical enterprise. The dominating methodological approach both in the Aristotelian-scholastic and Cartesian natural philosophy, was one in which truths about the natural world were proposed as conjectural hypotheses. Cartesian '''rationalism'''sought to deduce such hypotheses from fundamental metaphysical principles that were deemed evidently true by human reason. [[CiteRef::Janiak (2016)]][[CiteRef::Lennon and Dea (2014)]] Influenced by the more experimental and mathematically oriented methodologies of Bacon, Galileo, and Boyle, Newton on drew a distinction between a conclusion drawn from observation or experimental evidence and one that was merely a speculative 'hypothesis'. He explicitly rejected the methodof hypotheses, and instead demanded that all propositions be deduced from the observed phenomena and then converted into general principles via '''induction'''. [[CiteRef::McMullin (2001)]][[CiteRef::Janiak (2016)]][[CiteRef::Smith (2002)]] In the second edition of the ''Principia'', Newton states:

Prior <blockquote>I have not as yet been able to deduce from phenomena the publication reason for these properties of The Principiagravity, the philosophy of motion and change in I do not feign hypotheses. For whatever is not deduced from the universe was largely phenomena must be called a theoretical hypothesis; and non-mathematical enterprisehypotheses, whether metaphysical or physical, or based on occult qualities, or mechanical, have no place in experimental philosophy. The dominating methodological approach to natural In this experimental philosophy both in , propositions are deduced from the Aristotelian-scholastic phenomena and Cartesian mosaicare made general by induction. The impenetrability, mobility, was one in which truths about and impetus of bodies and the natural world were proposed as conjectural hypotheseslaws of motion and law of gravity have been found by this method. Newton explicitly rejected And it is enough that gravity should really exist and should act according to the method of hypotheses, laws that we have set forth and instead demanded that should suffice for all propositions be deduced from the phenomena motions of the heavenly bodies and then converted into general principles via inductionof our sea.[[CiteRef::Newton (1999)| p. 276]]</blockquote>

In The generality of Newton's rejection of hypotheses in natural philosophy is unclear since, in the second edition ''Opticks'' he did discuss hypotheses about light, and did raise the possibility of an invisible aether responsible for gravitational attraction. [[CiteRef::Janiak (2016)|pp. 25-26]] His epistemological beliefs were similar to those of his contemporary and friend, [[John Locke]] (1632-1704) who maintained that all knowledge came from experience. [[CiteRef::Rogers (1982)]] Newton called his methodology the '''experimental philosophy''', because theories about the behavior of empirical objects can only be refuted via experimental procedures.[[CiteRef::Smith (2002)]] He expressed its core beliefs in a set of four “rules for the study of natural philosophy,” which he stated in book III of The ''Principia, Newton states'' as follows:

“I have not as yet been able <blockquote># No more causes of natural things should be admitted than are both true and sufficient to deduce from explain their phenomena # Therefore, the reason for these properties causes assigned to natural effects of gravitythe same kind must be, so far as possible, the same# Those qualities of bodies that cannot be intended and I do not feign hypothesesremitted (i. For whatever is not deduced from the phenomena must e. qualities that cannot be called a hypothesis; increased and diminished) and hypotheses, whether metaphysical or physical, or based that belong to all bodies on occult which experiments can be made should be taken as qualities, or mechanical, have no place in experimental philosophy. of all bodies universally# In this experimental philosophy, propositions are deduced gathered from the phenomena and are made general by induction. The impenetrabilityshould be considered either exactly or very nearly true notwithstanding any contrary hypothesis, mobility, and impetus of bodies and the laws of motion and law of gravity have been found by this method. And it is enough that gravity should really exist and should act according until yet other phenomena make such propositions either more exact or liable to the laws that we have set forth and should suffice for all the motions of the heavenly bodies and of our seaexceptions.”[[CiteRef::Newton (1999)|pp. 794-796]]</blockquote>

Newton called his Out of these four rules a new, engaged method for conducting science emerged that stood in stark contrast to the previous passive and theoretical Cartesian and Aristotelian-scholastic methods. Propositions formulated based on observations of the experimental philosophy, because theories about natural world and placed back into the behavior of empirical objects can only natural world to be refuted via experimental procedurestested empirically.[[CiteRef::Smith (2002)]] He expressed The calculus became deeply incorporated into the core beliefs experimental method, as it was used to mathematically calculate empirical predictions from which he natural laws, and then evaluate how exactly the prediction matched the observed reality. Newton claimed to have derived his law of universal gravitation using this method in as applied to Kepler's laws of planetary motion. In the Cartesian natural philosophy, centripetal force had already been defined as the agent that pulled the moon towards the Earth, keeping its orbit circular rather than linear. Newton appealed to rules 1) and 2) to claim that the centripetal force, and the force that compelled objects to move downwards towards the Earth, were merely two different expressions of the same thing. Newton then went on to apply the third rule, and argue that this force, which he called gravity, must be a set universal property of four “rules all material objects. From here, he went on to argue for the study unification of superlunary and sublunary phenomena, which Aristotle had deemed to be distinct realms.[[CiteRef::Harper (2002)|pp. 183-184]]|Criticism=Newton's theories provoked immediate and wide interest in Britain, and became accepted there by the first decade of the eighteenth century. [[CiteRef::Smith (2009)]][[CiteRef::Barseghyan (2015)|p. 210]] In continental Europe, acceptance came more slowly. To proponents of natural the mechanical philosophy,” which he stated it was methodologically necessary that all motion be given a cause involving direct physical contact of bodies. Many of Newton's continental contemporaries, in particular Leibniz and Huygens, strongly objected to the idea that forces could act at a distance. Leibniz regarded the theory of gravitation as a regression in book III natural philosophy and accused Newton of The Principia treating gravity as followsan 'occult quality' beyond philosophical understanding. After an intense debate, Newtonian gravitation theory became accepted through much of continental Europe by the middle of the eighteenth century. [[CiteRef::Janiak (2016)]] [[CiteRef::Barseghyan (2015)|pp. 211-212]][[CiteRef::Aiton (1958)|p. 172]][[CiteRef::Frangsmyr (1974)|p. 35]]

"1More than two centuries after Newton published the ''Principia'', a new theory of motion and gravitation was formulated by Albert Einstein (1879-1955), who was inspired by new developments in non-Euclidean geometry and by problems with James Clerk Maxwell's (1831-1879) No more cause theory of electromagnetic radiation. The new theory replaced Newton's theory as the accepted theory of motion and gravitation by about 1920. Einstein's '''General Theory of Relativity''' explained the success of its predecessor by showing that its equations reduce to those of Newton in the limit of natural things should be admitted than weak gravitational fields and velocities that are both true an insignificant fraction of that of light. Einstein's theory eliminated the problem of action at a distance by postulating that the mass of an object warps space-time, and sufficient to explain their phenomenathat the local manifestation of this curvature influences distant bodies. [[CiteRef::Barseghyan (2015)|p. 125]][[CiteRef::Isaacson (2007)]]

2Newton's experimental philosophy shaped accepted claims about scientific methodology, influencing the methodological pronouncements of George Berkeley (1685-1753), David Hume, Thomas Reid (1710-1796), and Immanuel Kant (1724-1804). [[CiteRef::McMullin (2001) Therefore]] However, according to McMullin, Newton's methodology ran contrary to the causes assigned to consensus that had been emerging among natural effects philosophers of his time, in favor of what we now recognize as the '''hypothetico-deductive method'''. [[CiteRef::McMullin (2001)]] Historical research shows that the scientific community did not use Newton's own criteria in evaluating his work. His theories did not become accepted outside of England until after their prediction of the same kind must beoblate spheroid shape of the Earth was confirmed by expeditions to Lapland and Peru. Newton's own theories became accepted based on confirmed novel predictions that distinguished them from the rival theory of Cartesian vortices, rather than by Newton's own '''inductive methodology'''. Further, Newton's theory, so far as possiblein fact, posited unobservable hypothetical entities, including gravitational attraction, absolute space, the sameand absolute time.[[CiteRef::Barseghyan (2015)|p. 48-49]][[CiteRef::Terrall (1992)]][[CiteRef::McMullin (2001)]]

3) Those qualities of bodies By the mid-eighteenth century natural philosophers were beginning to realize that cannot be intended and remitted (i.e. qualities that cannot be increased and diminished) and that belong to all bodies on which experiments can be made should be taken as qualities many successful theories violated the strictures of all bodies universally 4) In Newton's inductive experimental philosophy, propositions gathered from phenomena by induction should be considered either exactly or very nearly true nonwithstanding any contrary hypothesis, until yet other phenomena make such propositions either more exact or liable to exceptions.”[[CiteRef::Newton (1999)]] Out The eighteenth century saw the acceptance of these four rules a newvariety of theories that posited unobservable entities, active method for conducting science emerged that stood in stark contrast the previous passive and theoretical Cartesian and Aristotelianincluding Benjamin Franklin's (1706-scholastic methods. Propositions are born from natural sources and placed back into the natural world to be tested empirically.[[CiteRef::Smith (20021790)]] As theory of electricity, which posited the four rules were absorbed into the ensuing mosaicexistence of an unobservable electric fluid, the calculus became deeply incorporated in the experimental methodphlogiston theory of combustion and rust, as it was used to mathematically calculate from natural laws which likewise posited an empirical predictionunobservable substance, and then evaluate how exactly the prediction matched the observed reality. Using these principles, Newton was able to derive the law Augustin-Jean Fresnel's (1788-1827) wave theory of universal gravity in the context of his method. In the Cartesian mosaic, the centripetal force had already been defined light which posited an unobservable fluid ether as the agent that pulled the moon towards the Earth, keeping its orbit circular rather than linear. Newton applied rules 1 and 2 to determine that the centripedal force, and the force that compelled objects to move downwards towards the Earth, were merely two different expressions medium of the same thing. Newton then went on to apply the third rulelight, and argue that this force, which he called gravity, must be a universal property of all material objects. From here, he went on to argue for the unification Herman Boerhaave's (1668-1738) vibratory theory of superlunary and sublunary phenomenaheat.[[CiteRef::Harper Laudan (20091984a)|pp. 18356-18457]] Although not all of the ontological changes to the mosaic described in The Principia were immediately accepted, the new experimental philosophy that he described influenced contemporary scientists within the same century of it’s publication. [Newtons philosophy] Both prominent 17th century natural philosophers Christiaan Huygens and John Locke are known to have taken the experimental philosophy, if not necessarily the full content of Newton’s theories, to heart.[[CiteRef::Janiak Barseghyan (20162015)|p. 54]] By 1700 The methodologists of the acceptance of “experimental philosophy” methodological structure had overtaken that of Cartesianism in England.[[CiteRef::Janiak early nineteenth century, William Whewell (1794-1866) and John Hershel (20161792-1871)]]|Criticism=Although many natural philosophers in recognized that the 17th century were convinced by Newton’s views on the the proper method actual practice of conducting science, many were did not willing conform to abandon the Cartesian mechanical philosophy. Contemporary philosopher Leibniz in particular was concerned that prescribed Newtonian methodology and openly advocated the theory of gravity as a regression in natural philosophy, as Newton could not account for the source of gravity. To the Cartesians, it was more important that all motion in the universe could be given a direct cause, which was only possible under the mechanical philosophy, even if this amounted to a larger gap between theory and experimental evidencehypothetico-deductive method.[[CiteRef::Janiak Laudan (20161984a)|pp. 56-60]]|Related Topics=Methodology,|Page Status=Needs EditingEditor Approved}}{{YouTube Video|VideoID=ELbm5KUYMLM|VideoDescription=Hakob Barseghyan's lecture on Newtonian Worldview|VideoEmbedSection=Major Contributions